The physical landscape on which human societies develop is not permanent. Mountains rise and erode, coastlines advance or retreat, rivers change their courses, and valleys, slopes, wetlands, and plains evolve through geological and climatic processes. Some transformations occur over millions of years, while others can alter the conditions of human settlement within decades or even within a single event. Earthquakes can elevate or lower sections of land, landslides can reshape entire hillsides, volcanic activity can create new terrain, and changing rainfall patterns can accelerate erosion and alter river systems. Rising sea levels, coastal erosion, drought, and extreme precipitation can further transform the environments in which people live and work.

Climate change is creating a new reality for institutions, affecting infrastructure, public finance, urban planning, water systems, energy, and economic development. Strong institutions can help societies anticipate climate risks, protect investments, and integrate resilience into long-term national planning.

Climate change is contributing to rising sea levels and changing river systems, increasing risks for coastal and river communities. These changes affect infrastructure, real estate, transportation networks, and long-term capital investments, making resilience and adaptive planning essential for sustainable economic development.